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Intersectionality in media and popular culture focuses on the various ways in which categories of identity such as gender, race, and class interact to shape media representations. Research on this topic focuses on intersectionality as an analytical framework used to understand how multiple categories of identity interact. There are also many examples of intersectionality used as a political orientation which promotes diversity and inclusion in media and social movements. Intersectionality proves to be a useful tool in deconstructing and understanding discrimination and representations in media, by determining who is represented, and how they are represented.
Intersectionality in Media and Popular Culture
Research on intersectionality in media and popular culture focuses on the various ways in which categories of identity such as gender, race, and class interact to shape media representations. Although the term intersectionality was coined in 1989 by Kimberlé Crenshaw, mass media research focused on multi-dimensional analyses did not begin to appear until the mid 2000’s. Therefore, the amount of mass communication research centered on intersectionality is still minimal. However, there are several excellent resources that have diversified the body of mass media research. This section will highlight some of the key resources on intersectional analyses on media and popular culture, in a breadth of mediated forms including talk shows, advertising, news, television and cinema. These resources were selected because they were the most recent and most cited sources surrounding this topic. They all highlight the complex nature of media representations and demonstrate the advantage to using a intersectional approach to understanding the meanings and discrimination within media. Furthermore, these resources all stress the need for multi-dimensional analyses in further mass media research.
Talk Shows
An excellent resource for understanding intersectional framework is provided in “Beyond the Feminine: Intersectionality and Talk Shows.” Popular culture professor, Becca Cragin, demonstrates that intersectionality is a better approach to understanding the cultural meanings behind talks shows and the messages they portray. Cragin shows how early feminist scholarship on talk shows have focused on gendered analyses which have asserted that talk shows are feminist and focus on women’s experiences. Several feminist scholars have argued that talk shows have strong similarities to "feminist conscious-raising groups," and therefore provide an outlet for women to talk about issues that affect their lives. However, Cragin argues that talk show topics are chosen for their level of sensation, rather than their ability to provide a forum for women’s issues.
Using Jerry Springer, Oprah Winfrey, and Ricki Lake as examples Cragin shows how talk shows have moved away from a preoccupation on gender and have begun to incorporate other categories of identity, with the intention of making spectacles out of sexually, racially, and economically marginalized guests. This transition from being informative to being purely entertainment has caused talk shows to feature sexual and gender nonconforming people as a way to spark ratings. Talk shows have focused on including “extreme, and at times even bizarre images of gays and lesbians, framed through a carnivalesque address, which… reinforce[s] stereotypes of queers as freaks.” (Cragin, 164) Cragin argues that these representations, and the reactions they elicit, which are entirely based on a guest’s sexuality, class, and race, require an intersectional approach to understand the politics of these types of talk shows.
Advertising
Similarly, sociology professors, Anthony Barnum and Anna Zajicek, argue in their work, "An Intersectional Analysis of Visual Media: A case of Diesel Advertisements," that an intersectional approach is needed in order to understand identities and power relations in visual media. Barnum and Zajicek assert that an intersectional perspective allows for the deconstruction of hegemonic representations in advertisements, and is a more holistic approach to analyzing media compared to research that focuses on single dimensions of inequality. The professors performed an intersectional analysis of Diesel advertisements by focusing on concepts of racialized gender and gendered race. From the analysis of Diesel’s advertisement campaign “Nature: Love it While it Last,” it is concluded that women are presented in more submissive positions than men, regardless of their race/ethnicity. However, within four examples of women whose bodies are bound or constrained by nature, it is shown that the ways women are presented as submissive are different depending on their race/ethnicity. While the white women are constrained by plants or vines, the Black woman is constrained by a snake, drawing reference to the biblical symbolism of “Eve and the serpent betraying the race of man.” (Barnum and Zajicek, 121)
This resource also provides a possible model for intersectional readings of visual media, specifically advertising. Based off of Leslie McCall’s work, three methodical approaches to managing the complexity of intersectional analyses are explained. Barnum and Zajicek argue that the third approach, inter-categorical, which involves comparing and contrasting multiple identities across multiple social groups, is the most appropriate for analyzing visual media. This allows for advertisements to be analyzed against “dominant ideologies, such as white heterosexual capitalist patriarchy.” (Barnum and Zajicek, 115) This analysis highlights the advantages of using a multi-dimensional approach in order to gain a greater understanding of the discrimination that occurs within advertising.
News
Another valuable resource that is focused on understanding discrimination in media is provided by communications professor, Marian Meyers. Based off her 2004 case study of representations of violence against African American women in television news coverage, Marian Meyers published “African American Women in the News: Gender, Race, and Class in Journalism,” in 2013. Through six individual case studies, Meyers examines the representations of African American women in the news and the “complex and varied ways that gender, race, class and other markers of social identity are inextricable linked within a hierarchy of dominance.” (Meyers, 5) Meyers examines a range of media, including newspapers, local television, cable networks, and YouTube, in order to advance the understanding of gendered, classed, and racial representations in mainstream media.
Meyers points out that while plenty of research has focused on representations of African Americans in the news, showing that African Americans have been primarily portrayed as criminals, impoverished, and as threats, research has ignored representations of African American women. Many scholars have concluded that news coverage has linked African Americans to crime, perpetuating racism and reinforcing marginality. Meyers asserts that this continued “existence of systematic racial bias and discrimination against African Americans” (Meyers, 7) can only be understood by examining gendered representations as well; that a holistic understanding can not be reached by excluding the unique representations of African American women due to the intersection of their race and gender.
Based on Patricia Hill Collins framework for understanding stereotypes of Black women, Meyers examines representations of the mammy, the matriarch, the welfare mother, and the Jezebel in mainstream media showing how these representations perpetuate racist ideology and allow for viewers to “blame African American women for the degenerative conditions’ of their race” (Meyers, 8) Through her case studies, Meyers concludes that while representations of African American women are rare, their little coverage frequently portrays them as victims in television news coverage. Meyers argues that while race and gender play a role in these representations, class is also a determining factor of whether African American women are represented as victims or as guilty, proving that portrayals and media representations are far more complex than past research has suggested.
Tv Shows
Similar to the resources of Meyers and Cragin, communications professor Danielle Stern points out that past research on media representations have failed to use an intersectional approach. In her article, “It Takes a Classless, Heteronormative Utopian Village: Gilmore Girls and the Problem of Postfeminism," Stern analyzes the popular television series Gilmore Girls as a mythological response to postfeminism. Although Gilmore Girls has been seen as a feminist and forward thinking television show by many feminist scholars and critics, Stern argues that the popular television series is a narrow representation of gender, class, and race. Through her intersectional analysis, based on narratives of heteronormative sensibility, upward class mobility, and post-race relations, Stern asserts that the absence of diverse representation of people only normalizes the status quo.
Stern acknowledges that while it was not necessary for the show to include a LGBTQ relationship in the major story arc to be considered an empowering, feminist television show, she argues that Gilmore Girls relies on “heterosexual desire and privilege [which] does not move the conversation forward- neither in popular culture nor in feminist academic discourse.” (Stern, 174) Stern also argues that Gilmore Girls’ portrayal of Lorelai, the shows main character, fails to represent the struggles of real single working mothers, due to her financially wealthy situation. Finally, Stern points out the shows lack of racial and ethnic diversity alienates minority viewers and misrepresents the viewing population. Stern argues that representation is vital in popular culture, not only for audience reliability, but because airtime devoted to specific groups are “direct indicator[s] of that group’s vitality in society.” (Stern, 180) Similar to Meyer’s research, this resource stresses that scholars must engage in intersectional analyses because media representations are far more complicated than past research has suggested.
Cinema
Another valuable resource that explores minority representations in media is, “Towards a Latinidad Feminista: The Multiplicities of Latinidad and Feminism in Contemporary Cinema.” In her article, communications professor Jillian Báez, examines how the intersections of gender, race, and class shape Latina representation in contemporary cinema. Much like Stern, Báez argues that minority representation in media is vital, and acknowledges that in recent years representations of Latina/os have increased. However, Báez asserts that many media representations of Latina/os have not reflected “the true social, demographic, and cultural realities of everyday life among U.S. Latinos.” (Báez, 111) Through case studies on three Latina films, Selena, Girlfight, and Real Women Have Curves, Báez shows how these representations counter dominant archetypes of Latina women, yet still present stereotypical representations of the Latinidad community as a whole. Báez argues that while these representations “are counter-hegemonic in foregrounding differences within a film industry that has historically provided only uni-dimensional roles for Latinas” (Báez, 124) they are also full of contradictions, making an intersectional analysis critical to understanding Latina representations in media.
The above resources all provide valuable examples of intersectional analyses of media and popular culture. While further research is needed in order to diversify intersectional mass media research, these resources provide thoughtful insight in a breadth of mediated forms. These resources all stress the complexity of media representations, and therefore highlight the advantages to analyzing media using an intersectional lens. I’m sure as intersectionality gains more momentum in the coming years, there will be a larger, more diverse body of research available on representations in media.
References
Báez, J. M. (2007). Towards a Latinidad Feminista: The Multiplicities of Latinidad and Feminism in Contemporary Cinema. Popular Communication, 5(2), 109-128.doi:10.1080/15405700701294079
Cragin, B. (2010). Beyond the Feminine: Intersectionality and Hybridity in Talk Shows. Women's Studies In Communication, 33(2), 154-172. doi:10.1080/07491409.2010.507585
Meyers, M. (2013). African American Women in the News: Gender, Race and Class in Journalism. New York, NY: Routledge.
Stern, D. M. (2012). It Takes a Classless, Heteronormative Utopian Village: Gilmore Girls and the Problem of Postfeminism. Communication Review, 15(3), 167-186. doi:10.1080/10714421.2012.702005
Annotated Bibliography: Selected Sources on Intersectionality in Media and Popular Culture
Anderson, E., & McCormack, M. (2010). Intersectionality, Critical Race Theory, and American Sporting Oppression: Examining Black and Gay Male Athletes. Journal Of Homosexuality, 57(8), 949-967. doi:10.1080/00918369.2010.503502
Eric Anderson and Mark McCormack discuss the intersection of race and sexuality of male athletes and the ways athletes who are both Black and gay are discriminated and oppressed in sports culture. Anderson and McCormack argue that Black male athletes have been generalized at heterosexual, and gay male athletes have been generalized as white. This further marginalizes Black gay male athletes, making it hard to come out because they face elevated rates of discrimination on multiple fronts. It also briefly discusses how sports media reinforces these racist and homophobic ideologies. Although this article only brief discusses how the intersection of race and sexuality is portrayed in sports media, sports are an important part of popular culture and this article is a good addition to our project because it discusses multiple forms of oppression in athletes.
Báez, J. M. (2007). Towards a Latinidad Feminista: The Multiplicities of Latinidad and Feminism in Contemporary Cinema. Popular Communication, 5(2),109-128.doi:10.1080/15405700701294079
Through the case studies of Selena, Girl Fight, and Real Women Have Curves, Jillian Báez examines the diverse and complex representations of Latinidades feministas. Although Báez focuses on the intersection of ethnicity and gender, she provides analysis for how these films represent the intersection of many forms of identity; race, ethnicity, gender, and sexuality. Báez asserts that while there have been many portrayals of people of color in films, Selena, Girl Fight, and Real Woman Have Curves, provide complex and fluid representations of Latina women. This article provides an example of an intersectional reading of contemporary cinema and also provides an example of diverse representations of Latina women in popular culture.
Anthony Barnum and Anna Zajicek illustrate and provide a model for intersectional readings of visual media, specifically advertising. Using a methodological approach called inter-categorical, an intersectional analysis of a Diesel advertisement campaign is conducted, examining concepts of racialized gender and gendered race. The intent is to provide a framework for intersectional analysis of visual media and to highlight the advantages of using a multi-demential approach in order to gain a greater understanding of the discrimination that occurs within advertising. This article provides a model for intersectional analysis of visual media and advertising, and explains three methodological approaches that can be used to deconstruct visual images.
Cragin, B. (2010). Beyond the Feminine: Intersectionality and Hybridity in Talk Shows. Women's Studies In Communication, 33(2), 154-172. doi:10.1080/07491409.2010.507585
Becca Cragin analyzes intersectionality in talk shows and make several arguments: That talk shows have moved away from a preoccupation on gender and have begun to incorporate other categories of identity, with the intention of making spectacles out of sexually, racially, and economically marginalized guests. That the kind of performances that take place on talk shows and the types of reactions they elicit vary based on categories of identity. Lastly, that in order to under the meaning behind talk shows and the messages they portray, media scholars must take an intersectional approach to understanding their meaning. This article provides a good analysis for the different ways people are marginalized on talk shows based on multiples aspects of their identity.
Gill, R. (2009). Beyond the 'Sexualization of Culture' Thesis: An Intersectional Analysis of 'Sixpacks', 'Midriffs' and 'Hot Lesbians' in Advertising. Sexualities, 12(2), 137-160.
Rosalind Gill analyzes the different ways people are ‘sexualized’ in advertising. Gill examines three different figures in advertising: “the good looking male ‘sixpack’, the sexually agent heterosexual ‘midriff’ and the 'hot lesbian.'” Through her intersectional analysis, Gill shows the ways age, class, sexuality, and race effect the depiction of models and the ways in which they are ‘sexualized’. Gill stresses that in order to understand the sexualization in advertising, one must move past analyzing based solely on gender and race, and examine the ways age, class, and sexuality play a role. This article provides thoughtful, intersectional analysis into the ways people are sexualized and objectified in advertisements.
Hobson, K. (2013). Performative Tensions in Female Drag Performances. Kaleidoscope: A Graduate Journal Of Qualitative Communication Research, 1235-51.
Kathryn Hobson analyzes a drag king performance with an intersectional queer lens showing how gendered drag performances “teeter a jagged line between our normalized assumptions of gender, sexuality, race and class.” Hobson argues that while drag performances have the power to do social justice work, they simultaneously have the power of oppression. Within this argument, Hobson asserts that drag performances have the ability to prioritize and value masculinity, whiteness, and those of upper class while also having the power to challenge these aspects of identity. This article provides an excellent analysis of the multiple forms of identity that work together simultaneously within the drag community, which have the power to both liberate and oppress it’s members.
Johnson, A. (2014). Confessions of a Video Vixen: My Autocritography of Sexuality, Desire, and Memory. Text & Performance Quarterly, 34(2), 182-200. doi:10.1080/10462937.2013.879991
Through the telling of her own experience as a video vixen, Amber Johnson takes an intersectional approach to Black sexuality and desire. Johnson discusses ways in which gender, class, and race intersect to define Black women’s experiences as video vixens. Through her own personal narrative, Johnson explores how the intersection of her identities influenced her perception of self and seeks to challenge binary labels attached to gender, race, and class. This article provides a personal narrative of a woman in the music industry and provides examples of how her multiple forms of identity combine to shape her experience in hip-hop culture.
Leonard, D. (2006). Not a Hater, Just Keepin' It Real: The Importance of Race- and Gender-Based Game Studies. Games And Culture, 1(1), 83-88.http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1555412005281910
David Leonard does an intersectional analysis of representations of people of color in video games. Leonard points out several representations that are based on multiple forms of identity including: representations of Arabs and Asians are based on notions of race, gender, and nation, and representations of Native American women are sexualized and based off racist stereotypes of indigenous people. Leonard argues that these representations reinforce stereotypes and normalize inequality. Leonard provides an overview into intersectional analyses of video games. While it is very brief, it does provide insight to how people of color are represented.
Meyers, M. (2004). African American Women and Violence: Gender, Race, and Class in the News. Critical Studies In Media Communication, 21(2), 95-118.
Marian Meyers examines the representations of violence against African American women in television news coverage. The study analyzes local TV news coverage of African America women participating in a spring break ritual in Atlanta, called Freaknik, during the 1990’s. The intersectional analysis examines the ways in which gender, race, and class alter the representations of victims of violence in local news coverage. The study concludes that African-American women are portrayed as “Jezebels” due to the convergence of sexism, racism, and classism, and are often blamed for their own victimization. This article is an important example of how multiple forms of oppression intertwine to produce different representations in the media.
Meyer, M.D.E. (2015). The 'Other' Woman in Contemporary Television Drama: Analyzing Intersectional Representation on Bones. Sexuality & Culture, 19(4), 900-915.doi:10.1007/s12119-015-9296-z
Michaela Meyers uses the example of the television series Bones to analyze intersectional representations used in television narratives, particularly “the ‘Other’ woman who is bisexual and/or queer and is often dealing with class disparity.” Meyers theorizes that these characters are used strategically in narratives as token representations for multiple forms of identity, often constructing a homogenous character, essentially blurring aspects of their identity. Meyers argues that because of this they are invisible in academic discussions. This article provides an example of intersectional analysis of characters in popular televisions programs.
Carolyn Nielsen provides examples of how intersectionality is useful in mass communication research. The examples show the advantage of examining simultaneous and multiple forms of oppression in evaluating institutional biases. Nielsen explains there is not yet a model for incorporating intersectionality into mass communication methodology, and explores a new, possible model of examining intersectionality in media. Nielsen states there is little intersectional research published within the field of communications. This article is intended to stress the importance of an intersectional approach and offer concepts to further diversify research in mass communications. This article is a good, brief overview of the research done pertaining to intersectionality and media, and shows the need for further research.
Stern, D. M. (2012). It Takes a Classless, Heteronormative Utopian Village: Gilmore Girls and the Problem of Postfeminism. Communication Review, 15(3), 167-186. doi:10.1080/10714421.2012.702005
Danielle Stern analyzes the popular television series Gilmore Girls as a methodological response to postfeminism. Stern examines how intersecting identities in Gilmore Girls are constructed through it’s narration and how this narrative normalizes the status quo. Gilmore Girls is analyzed based on three narratives: heteronormative sensibility, upward class mobility, and post-race relations. Stern asserts that the absence of diversity throughout the show alienates minority viewers and misrepresents the viewing population. Stern argues that representation is vital in popular culture, not only for audience reliability, but because airtime devoted to specific groups are “direct indicator[s] of that group’s vitality in society.” This article provides an intersectional analysis of popular culture, touches on issues of representation, and advocates for greater diversity in media.
Examples of Intersectionality in Media and Popular Culture
Tannenbaum, N.K. (2013). Orange is the New Black. New York, NY: Liongate Television. Netflix.
Orange is the New Black portrays many women from diverse backgrounds with variations in age, race, gender, sexuality, nationality and class. Orange is the New Black has focused on many issues surrounding intersectionality and visibility; it has increased minority representations on screen, advanced the visibility of transgender individuals, and challenged ideas about race and sexuality.
Paige, P., Bredeweg, B., & Lopez, J. (2013). The Fosters. Hollywood, CA: American Broadcasting Company.
The Fosters is a family drama about an interracial lesbian couple raising multiethnic foster children. The diverse family in The Fosters tackles a plethora of issues surrounding sexuality, gender, and race. These issues are explored and intertwined into the main plot of the show. Some of these issues include exploring bi-racial identities, a young adolescent's experience in coming out, and transgender youth.
The African American Policy Forum (AAPF) along with the Center for Intersectionality and Social Policy Studies started several social media campaigns in 2015 to raise awareness about the state of women of color and inequality at the intersections of race, gender, and class. The social media campaigns include: #sayhername, #blackgirlsmatter, #whywecantwait, #breakingthesilence, and, #herdreamdeferred. #sayhername is the most popular social media campaign and was started to call attention to the violence against Black women by police officers. The campaign wanted to ensure that Black women’s stories were integrated into policy responses and media representations of police brutality. #Sayhername is an important example of how intersectionality has shaped modern day activism and social movements.
This page was created by Michaela Freeland. Please send additions or corrections to kdfreeland@eagles.ewu.edu
Image from The African American Policy Forum 
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